Preface xix 1 Fabrication and Manufacturing Process of Solar Cell: Part I 1S. Dwivedi 1.1 Introduction 2 1.1.1 Introduction to Si-Based Fabrication Technology 2 1.1.2 Introduction to Si Wafer 4 1.1.3 Introduction to Diode Physics 5 1.1.3.1 Equilibrium Fermi Energy (EF) 10 1.2 Fabrication Technology of Diode 19 1.3 Energy Production by Equivalent Cell Circuitry 27 1.4 Conclusion 30 References 31 2 Fabrication and Manufacturing Process of Solar Cell: Part II 39Prabhansu and Nayan Kumar 2.1 Introduction 39 2.2 Silicon Solar Cell Technologies 41 2.2.1 Crystalline Structured Silicon (c-Si) 41 2.2.2 Silicon-Based Thin-Film PV Cell 43 2.3 Homojunction Silicon Solar Cells 44 2.3.1 Classic Structure and Manufacture Process 44 2.3.2 Plans for High Productivity 45 2.4 Solar Si-Heterojunction Cell 46 2.5 Si Thin-Film PV Cells 48 2.5.1 PV Cell Development Based on p-I-n and n-I-p 49 2.5.2 Light-Based Trapping Methodologies 49 2.5.3 Approach to Tandem 51 2.5.4 Current Trends 51 2.6 Perovskite Solar Cells 52 2.6.1 Introduction 52 2.6.2 Specific Properties with Perovskites-Based Metaldhalide for Photovoltaics 53 2.6.3 Crystallization of Perovskite 55 2.6.4 Current Trends 56 2.7 Future Possibility and Difficulties 56 2.8 Conclusions 57 References 58 3 Fabrication and Manufacturing Process of Perovskite Solar Cell 67Nandhakumar Eswaramoorthy and Kamatchi R 3.1 Introduction 67 3.2 Architectures of Perovskite Solar Cells 68 3.3 Working Principle of Perovskite Solar Cell 70 3.4 Components of Perovskite Solar Cell 73 3.4.1 Transparent Conducting Metal Oxide (TCO) Layer 73 3.4.2 Electron Transport Layer (ETL) 74 3.4.3 Perovskite Layer 74 3.4.4 Hole Transport Layer (HTL) 75 3.4.5 Electrodes 75 3.5 Fabrication of Perovskite Films 76 3.5.1 One-Step Method 77 3.5.2 Two-Step Method 77 3.5.3 Solid-State Method 78 3.5.4 Bifacial Stamping Method 78 3.5.5 Solvent-Solvent Extraction Method 78 3.5.6 Pulse Laser Deposition Method 78 3.5.7 Vapor Deposition Method 79 3.5.8 Solvent Engineering 79 3.5.9 Additive Engineering 79 3.6 Manufacturing Techniques of Perovskite Solar Cells 79 3.6.1 Solution-Based Manufacturing Technique 80 3.6.1.1 Spin Coating 80 3.6.1.2 Dip Coating 81 3.6.2 Roll-to-Roll (R2R) Process 82 3.6.2.1 Knife-Over-Roll Coating 82 3.6.2.2 Slot-Die Coating 83 3.6.2.3 Flexographic Printing 84 3.6.2.4 Gravure Printing 85 3.6.2.5 Screen Printing 85 3.6.2.6 Inkjet Printing 86 3.6.2.7 Spray Coating 87 3.6.2.8 Brush Painting 88 3.6.2.9 Doctor Blade Coating 88 3.7 Encapsulation 89 3.8 Conclusions 90 References 90 4 Parameter Estimation of Solar Cells: A State-of-the-Art Review with Metaheuristic Approaches and Future Recommendations 103Shilpy Goyal, Parag Nijhawan and Souvik Ganguli 4.1 Introduction 104 4.2 Related Works 106 4.3 Problem Formulation 107 4.3.1 Single-Diode Model (SDM) 113 4.3.2 Double-Diode Model (DDM) 115 4.3.3 Three-Diode Model (TDM) 117 4.4 Salient Simulations and Discussions for Future Work 121 4.5 Conclusions 134 References 134 5 Power Electronics and Solar Panel: Solar Panel Design and Implementation 139Nayan Kumar, Tapas Kumar Saha and Jayati Dey 5.1 Chapter Overview 139 5.2 Challenges in Solar Power 141 5.3 Solar PV Cell Design and Implementation 141 5.3.1 Solar PV Cell Basics 145 5.3.2 Single-Diode-Based PV Cells (SDPVCs) 148 5.3.3 Determination of the Parameters 151 5.3.4 Double-Diode-Based PV Cell (DDPVC) 152 5.3.5 Solar PV System Configuration 153 5.4 MPPT Scheme for PV Panels 154 5.4.1 Operation and Modeling of MPPT Schemes for Solar PV Panels 155 5.4.2 Comparisons of Existing Solar MPPT Schemes 156 5.4.2.1 Perturbation and Observation (P&O)-MPPT Algorithms 156 5.4.2.2 Incremental-Conductance MPPT Algorithm 158 5.5 Way for Utilization of PV Schemes 159 5.5.1 Stand-Alone (SA) Based PV System 159 5.5.2 Grid-Integration–Based PV System 161 5.6 Future Trends 161 5.7 Conclusion 162 References 162 6 An Effective Li-Ion Battery State of Health Estimation Based on Event-Driven Processing 167Saeed Mian Qaisar and Maram Alguthami 6.1 Introduction 168 6.2 Background and Literature Review 169 6.2.1 Rechargeable Batteries 169 6.2.2 Applications of Li-Ion Batteries 171 6.2.3 Battery Management Systems 171 6.2.4 State of Health Estimation Methods 173 6.2.4.1 Direct Assessment Approaches 173 6.2.4.2 Adaptive Model–Based Approaches 173 6.2.4.3 Data-Driven Approaches 174 6.3 The Proposed Approach 175 6.3.1 The Li-Ion Battery Model 175 6.3.2 The Event-Driven Sensing 176 6.3.3 The Event-Driven State of Health Estimation 177 6.3.3.1 The Conventional Coulomb Counting Based SoH Estimation 178 6.3.3.2 The Event-Driven Coulomb Counting Based SoH Estimation 178 6.3.4 The Evaluation Measures 179 6.3.4.1 The Compression Ratio 179 6.3.4.2 The Computational Complexity 179 6.3.4.3 The SoH Estimation Error 181 6.4 Experimental Results and Discussion 181 6.4.1 Experimental Results 181 6.4.2 Discussion 185 6.5 Conclusion 187 Acknowledgement 187 References 188 7 Effective Power Quality Disturbances Identification Based on Event-Driven Processing and Machine Learning 191Saeed Mian Qaisar and Raheef Aljefri 7.1 Introduction 192 7.2 Background and Literature Review 194 7.2.1 Types of PQ Disturbances 195 7.2.1.1 Transient 196 7.2.1.2 Voltage Fluctuation 196 7.2.1.3 Long Duration Voltage Interruption 196 7.2.1.4 Noise 196 7.2.1.5 Flicker 196 7.2.1.6 Waveform Distortion 196 7.2.2 Reasons for Generation of the PQ Disturbances 196 7.2.3 PQ Disturbances Monitoring Techniques 197 7.2.4 Facilities Effected by Power Quality Disturbances 198 7.2.5 Power Quality (PQ) Disturbances Model 198 7.2.6 Extraction of Features 199 7.2.7 Classification Techniques 200 7.3 Proposed Solution 201 7.3.1 Power Quality (PQ) Disturbances Model 201 7.3.1.1 The Pure Signal 202 7.3.1.2 The Sag 203 7.3.1.3 The Interruption 203 7.3.1.4 The Swell 203 7.3.2 The Signal Reconstruction 204 7.3.3 The Event-Driven Sensing 206 7.3.4 The Event-Driven Segmentation 207 7.3.5 Extraction of Features 207 7.3.6 Classification Techniques 208 7.3.6.1 k-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) 208 7.3.6.2 Naïve Bayes 209 7.3.7 Evaluation Measures 209 7.4 Results 210 7.5 Discussion 213 7.6 Conclusion 215 Acknowledgement 215 References 215 8 Sr2SnO4 Ruddlesden Popper Oxide: Future Material for Renewable Energy Applications 221Upendra Kumar and Shail Upadhya 8.1 Introduction 222 8.1.1 Needs of Renewable Energy 222 8.1.2 Ruddlesden Popper Oxide Phase 224 8.1.3 Application of Ruddlesden Popper Phase 227 8.1.4 Motivation of Present Work 229 8.2 Experimental Work 230 8.2.1 Preparation of Materials 230 8.2.2 Characterizations of Materials 231 8.3 Experimental Results 231 8.3.1 Thermogravimetric and Differential Scanning Calorimetry Analysis 231 8.3.2 Characterization of Sr2-xBaxSnO4 232 8.3.2.1 Phase Determination using XRD 232 8.3.2.2 Optical Properties 234 8.3.2.3 Dielectric Analysis of Samples 236 8.3.3 Characterization of Sr2-xLaxSnO4 239 8.3.3.1 Structural Analysis using XRD 239 8.3.3.2 UV-Vis. Spectroscopy 242 8.3.3.3 Electrical Analysis 244 8.4 Conclusions 245 Acknowledgement 246 References 246 9 A Universal Approach to Solar Photovoltaic Panel Modeling 251Chitra A., M. Manimozhi, Sanjeevikumar P, Nirupama Nambiar and Saransh Chhawchharia 9.1 Introduction 251 9.2 PV Panel Modeling: A Brief Overview 252 9.3 Proposed Model 254 9.4 Current Model 259 9.5 Voltage Model 260 9.6 Simulation Results 260 9.7 Conclusion 265 Acknowledgement 265 References 266 10 Stepped DC Link Converters for Solar Power Applications 271Dr. R. Uthirasamy, Dr. V. Kumar Chinnaiyan, Dr. J. Karpagam and Dr. V. J.Vijayalakshmi 10.1 Introduction 272 10.1.1 Photovoltaic Cell 272 10.1.2 Photovoltaic Module 272 10.1.3 Photovoltaic Array 273 10.1.4 Working of Solar Cell 273 10.1.5 Modeling of Solar Cell 273 10.1.6 Effect of Irradiance 277 10.1.7 Effect of Temperature 279 10.1.8 Maximum Efficiency 280 10.1.9 Fill Factor 280 10.1.10 Modeling of Solar Panel 281 10.1.11 Simulation Model of PV Interfaced Boost Chopper Unit 282 10.2 Power Converters for Solar Power Applications 283 10.2.1 Introduction 283 10.2.2 DC-DC Converters 284 10.2.2.1 Boost Converter 285 10.2.2.2 Buck-Boost Converter 286 10.2.3 DC-AC Converters 288 10.2.3.1 Structure of Boost Cascaded Multilevel Inverter 288 10.2.3.2 Analysis of DC Sources in BCMLI System 298 10.2.4 Structure of Single-Phase Seven-Level BCDCLHBI 298 10.2.4.1 Operation of Boost Cascaded DC Link Configuration 300 10.2.4.2 Operation of H-Bridge Inverter Configuration 309 10.2.4.3 Calculation of Losses in BCDCLHBI 310 10.2.5 Realization of Boost Cascaded Dc Link H-Bridge Inverter 312 10.2.5.1 Peripheral Interface Controller 312 10.2.5.2 Features of PIC16F877A Microcontroller 312 10.2.5.3 Equivalent Circuit of Boost Cascaded DC Link H-Bridge Inverter 313 10.2.5.4 Design of Boost Chopper Parameters 314 10.2.6 Conclusion 315 References 315 11 A Harris Hawks Optimization (HHO)–Based Parameter Assessment for Modified Two-Diode Model of Solar Cells 319Shilpy Goyal, Parag Nijhawan and Souvik Ganguli 11.1 Introduction 320 11.2 Problem Formulation 322 11.3 Proposed Methodology of Work 325 11.3.1 Exploration Phase 326 11.3.2 Switching from Exploration to Exploitation 327 11.3.3 Exploitation Phase 327 11.4 Simulation Results 327 11.5 Conclusions 340 References 341 12 A Large-Gain Continuous Input-Current DC-DC Converter Applicable for Solar Energy Systems 345Tohid Taghiloo, Kazem Varesi and Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban 12.1 Introduction 345 12.2 Proposed Configuration 348 12.3 Steady-State Analysis 351 12.4 Component Design 354 12.5 Real Gain Relation 355 12.6 Comparative Analysis 356 12.7 Simulation Outcomes 360 12.8 Conclusions 364 References 364 13 Stability Issues in Microgrids: A Review 369Sonam Khurana and Sheela Tiwari 13.1 Introduction 370 13.2 Stability Issues 373 13.2.1 Control System Stability 375 13.2.2 Power Supply and Balance Stability 376 13.3 Analysis Techniques 378 13.3.1 Large-Perturbation Stability 379 13.3.2 Small-Perturbation Stability 381 13.4 Microgrid Control System 382 13.4.1 Control Methods for AC Microgrids 384 13.4.1.1 Primary Control 384 13.4.1.2 Secondary Control 389 13.4.1.3 Tertiary Control 391 13.4.2 Control Methods for DC Microgrid 392 13.4.2.1 Primary Control 392 13.4.2.2 Secondary Control 394 13.4.2.3 Tertiary Control 396 13.5 Conclusion 396 References 396 14 Theoretical Analysis of Torque Ripple Reduction in the SPMSM Drives Using PWM Control-Based Variable Switching Frequency 411Mohamed G. Hussien and Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban 14.1 Introduction 411 14.2 Prediction of Current and Torque Ripples 413 14.2.1 Current Ripple Prediction 413 14.2.2 Torque Ripple Prediction 416 14.3 Variable Switching Frequency PWM (VSFPWM) Method for Torque Ripple Control 418 14.4 Conclusion 422 References 422 Appendix: Simulation Model Circuits 424 Main Model 424 Speed & Current Loop Controllers 425 VSFPWM for Torque Ripple Control 426 15 Energy-Efficient System for Smart Cities 427Dushyant Kumar Singh, Ashish Kumar Singh and Himani Jerath 15.1 Introduction 428 15.2 Factors Promoting Energy-Efficient System 429 15.2.1 Smart and Clean Energy 429 15.2.2 Smart Grid 430 15.2.3 Smart Infrastructure 431 15.2.4 Smart Home 431 15.2.4.1 Home Automation 432 15.2.5 Smart Surveillance 437 15.2.6 Smart Roads and Traffic Management 438 15.2.7 Smart Agriculture and Water Distribution 439 References 440 16 Assessment of Economic and Environmental Impacts of Energy Conservation Strategies in a University Campus 441Sunday O. Oyedepo, Emmanuel G. Anifowose, Elizabeth O. Obembe, Joseph O. Dirisu, Shoaib Khanmohamadi, Kilanko O., Babalola P.O., Ohunakin O.S., Leramo R.O. and Olawole O.C. 16.1 Introduction 442 16.2 Materials and Methods 444 16.2.1 Study Location 445 16.2.2 Instrumentation 446 16.2.2.1 Building Energy Simulation Tool – eQUEST Software 446 16.2.3 Procedure for Data Collection and Analysis 446 16.2.4 Analysis of Electrical Energy Consumption 447 16.2.5 Economic Analysis 448 16.2.6 Environmental Impacts Analysis 449 16.3 Electricity Consumption Pattern in Covenant University 449 16.3.1 Result of Electricity Demand in Covenant University for Various End Uses 450 16.3.1.1 Results of Energy Audit in Cafeterias 1 & 2 450 16.3.1.2 Results of Energy Audit in Academic Buildings (Mechanical Engineering Building) 453 16.3.1.3 Results of Energy Audit in University Library 455 16.3.1.4 Results of Energy Audit in Health Center 457 16.3.1.5 Results of Energy Audit in the Student Halls of Residence (Daniel Hall) 459 16.3.2 Comparison of Energy Use Among the University Buildings 461 16.3.3 Results of Greenhouse Gas Emissions 462 16.3.4 Qualitative Recommendation Analysis 463 16.3.4.1 Replacement of Lighting Fixtures with LED Bulbs 463 16.3.4.2 Installation of Solar Panels on the Roofs of Selected Buildings 464 16.4 Conclusion 465 References 466 17 A Solar Energy–Based Multi-Level Inverter Structure with Enhanced Output-Voltage Quality and Increased Levels per Components 469Fatemeh Esmaeili, Kazem Varesi and Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban 17.1 Introduction 470 17.2 Proposed Basic Topology 471 17.2.1 Topology of Basic Unit 471 17.2.2 Operation of Basic Configuration 472 17.2.3 Switching of Basic Unit for Different Magnitudes of Input Sources 473 17.2.3.1 Symmetric Value of Input DC Supplies (P1) 473 17.2.3.2 DC Sources with Binary Order Magnitudes (P2 ) 475 17.2.3.3 DC Sources with Trinary Manner Magnitudes (P3) 476 17.3 Proposed Extended Structure 478 17.3.1 Structure 478 17.3.2 Determination of Values of DC Supplies 478 17.3.3 Blocking Voltage (BV) on Switches 479 17.4 Efficiency and Losses Analysis in Suggested Structure 480 17.4.1 Conduction Power Loss 480 17.4.2 Switching Power Loss 481 17.5 Comparison Results 483 17.6 Nearest Level Technique 485 17.7 Simulation Results 485 17.8 Conclusions 490 References 490 18 Operations of Doubly Fed Induction Generators Applied in Green Energy Systems 495Bhagwan Shree Ram and Suman Lata Tripathi 18.1 Introduction 496 18.2 Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIG) Systems Operated by Wind Turbines 496 18.3 Control Scheme of Direct Current Controller 497 18.4 Simulation Studies of Direct Current Control of DFIG System 498 18.5 Characteristics of DFIG at Transient and After Transient Situation 499 18.6 Pulsation of DFIG Parameters with DCC Control Technique 501 18.7 Effects of 5th and 7th Harmonics of IS and VGRID 502 18.8 Load Contribution of DFIG in Grid with DCC Control Technique 503 18.9 Speed Control Scheme of Generators 505 18.10 DFIG Control Scheme 506 18.11 General Description About PI Controller Design 507 18.12 GSC Controller 508 18.13 Characteristics of DFIG with Wind Speed Variations 509 18.14 Conclusion 511 References 512 19 A Developed Large Boosting Factor DC-DC Converter Feasible for Photovoltaic Applications 515Hussein Mostafapour, Kazem Varesi and Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban 19.1 Introduction 515 19.2 Suggested Topology 518 19.2.1 Configuration 518 19.2.2 Operating Modes during CCM 520 19.2.3 Operating Modes during DCM 521 19.3 Steady State Analyses 524 19.3.1 Gain Calculation 524 19.3.2 Average Currents and Current Ripple of Inductors 527 19.3.3 Stress on Semiconductors 528 19.3.4 Efficiency 529 19.4 Design Consideration 531 19.4.1 Design Consideration of Capacitors 531 19.4.2 Design Consideration of Inductors 531 19.5 Comparison 532 19.6 Simulation 539 19.7 Conclusion 544 References 545 20 Photovoltaic-Based Switched-Capacitor Multi-Level Inverters with Self-Voltage Balancing and Step-Up Capabilities 549Saeid Deliri Khatoonabad, Kazem Varesi and Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban 20.1 Introduction 550 20.2 Suggested First (13-Level) Basic Configuration 551 20.3 Suggested Second Basic Configuration 556 20.4 Modulation Method 561 20.5 Design Consideration of Capacitors 562 20.6 Efficiency and Losses Analysis 563 20.7 Simulation Results 567 20.7.1 First Structure 567 20.7.2 Second Structure 571 20.8 Comparative Analysis 575 20.9 Conclusions 578 References 579 Index 583

Covering the concepts and fundamentals of green energy, this volume, written and edited by a global team of experts, also goes into the practical applications that can be utilized across multiple industries, for both the engineer and the student. Like most industries around the world, the energy industry has also made, and continues to make, a long march toward "green" energy. The science has come a long way since the 1970s, and renewable energy and other green technologies are becoming more and more common, replacing fossil fuels. It is, however, still a struggle, both in terms of energy sources keeping up with demand, and the development of useful technologies in this area. To maintain the supply for electrical energy, researchers, engineers and other professionals in industry are continuously exploring new eco-friendly energy technologies and power electronics, such as solar, wind, tidal, wave, bioenergy, and fuel cells. These technologies have changed the concepts of thermal, hydro and nuclear energy resources by the adaption of power electronics advancement and revolutionary development in lower manufacturing cost for semiconductors with long time reliability. The latest developments in renewable resources have proved their potential to boost the economy of any country. Green energy technology has not only proved the concept of clean energy but also reduces the dependencies on fossil fuel for electricity generation through smart power electronics integration. Also, endless resources have more potential to cope with the requirements of smart building and smart city concepts. A valuable reference for engineers, scientists, chemists, and students, this volume is applicable to many different fields, across many different industries, at all levels. It is a must-have for any library. This breakthrough new volume: Provides a thorough, comprehensive reference for anyone working in green energy, for engineers, scientists, chemists, and students in many fieldsIs a key tool for researchers and designers in scoping parameters for future processes and equipment relating to green energyOutlines the practical applications of green energy across many different industries and fields, including advanced electronic systemsCovers the international standards for green energy technology