Notes on Editors xix

List of Contributors xxi

Preface xxvii

Acknowledgment xxix

1 Overview of Coastal and Marine Pollution: Sources, Impacts, and Challenges 1
Gohagodage Nirmal Tharanga Jayalath and Amila Sandaruwan Ratnayake

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Pollution in Coastal and Marine Environments 2

1.3 Sources of Coastal and Marine Pollution 3

1.3.1 Sources and Distribution Pathways of Pollutants 3

1.3.2 Industrial Activities 3

1.3.3 Agricultural Runoff 5

1.3.4 Sewage and Wastewater 6

1.3.5 Oil Spills 6

1.3.6 Maritime Transport 7

1.3.7 Plastic Pollution 8

1.3.8 Atmospheric Deposition 8

1.3.9 Coastal Developments 9

1.3.10 Mining Activities 9

1.3.11 Invasive Species 9

1.3.12 Nuclear Fallout 10

1.3.13 Natural Events 10

1.3.14 Climate Change 10

1.4 Impacts of Coastal and Marine Pollution 11

1.4.1 Harm to Marine Life 11

1.4.1.1 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification 11

1.4.1.2 Habitat Degradation and Fisheries Decline 11

1.4.2 Biodiversity Loss 12

1.4.3 Economic Consequences 12

1.4.4 Human Health Risks 12

1.4.5 Eutrophication 13

1.4.6 Coastal and Infrastructure Damage 13

1.4.7 Climate Change Amplification 14

1.4.8 Loss of Aesthetic and Cultural Value 14

1.4.9 Social and Environmental Justice Issues 14

1.4.10 Marine Debris and Plastic Pollution 14

1.5 Challenges in Coastal and Marine Pollution 15

1.5.1 Lack of Global Regulation and Enforcement 15

1.5.2 Data and Monitoring Gaps 15

1.5.3 Complexity of Pollution Sources 16

1.5.4 Technological and Financial Constraints 16

1.5.5 Plastic Pollution 17

1.5.6 Long-Term and Cumulative Effects 17

1.5.7 Climate Change Interactions 17

1.5.8 Political and Economic Interests 17

1.5.9 Inadequate Waste Management 18

1.5.10 Community Engagement 18

1.5.11 Enforcement and Legal Frameworks 18

1.5.12 Emerging Pollutants 18

1.6 Summary 19

References 19

2 Pollution from Land-Based Sources: Industrial and Urban Runoff 27
Mihiri Indunil Gunasekara, Ishani Mahawaththa, Dilani Madhubhashini, and Kaushani Amarasena

2.1 Organic Marine and Coastal Pollutants 27

2.2 Inorganic Marine and Coastal Pollutants 28

2.3 Newer Forms of Marine and Coastal Pollutants 29

2.3.1 Plastics 29

2.3.2 Noise as a Marine Pollutant 29

2.3.3 Invasive Species as Marine Pollutants 30

2.4 Climate Change and Marine and Coastal Pollution 30

2.5 Pollutant Transport from Land-Based Sources 31

2.5.1 Industrial Runoff 31

2.5.2 Urban Runoff 32

2.5.3 Agricultural Runoff 33

2.6 Sources of Marine Pollution 35

2.7 Effects Related to Marine Pollution 37

References 39

3 Marine Pollution Issues Relating to Shipping, Ports, and Use of Marine Coatings 45
Christopher W. Haley and R. John Morrison

3.1 Introduction 45

3.1.1 Ships and Shipping Impacts 45

3.2 Marine Pollution from Shipping 47

3.2.1 Air Pollution 48

3.2.1.1 Management of Air Pollution from Ships 49

3.2.2 Marine Pollutants 49

3.2.2.1 Oil Pollution 49

3.2.2.2 Behavior of Oil in Water 50

3.2.3 Hazardous and Noxious Substances (HNS) 51

3.2.4 Ballast Water Issues (Aquatic Invasive Species, AIS) 51

3.3 Pollution from Ship Wastes 52

3.3.1 Marine Litter 52

3.3.2 Plastic Pollution 52

3.3.3 Data Considerations 55

3.3.4 Microplastics 56

3.3.4.1 Plastic Pollution Solutions 56

3.4 Sewage 56

3.5 Ship Collisions and Pollution 57

3.5.1 Ship Collisions with Megafauna 57

3.5.2 Cruise Ships 58

3.6 Ports 58

3.6.1 The Effect of Port Changes for Shipping on Biodiversity 60

3.7 Marine Coatings 61

3.8 Conclusions 62

References 63

4 Offshore Oil and Gas Operations: Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Methods 67
Savinda Arambawatta Lekamge, Ishani Mahawaththa, and S.D.N.A.M.A.M. Weerasinghe

4.1 Introduction 67

4.2 Global Status of Offshore Oil and Gas Explorations 68

4.3 Processes/Methods Involved in Offshore Oil and Gas Operations 70

4.3.1 Exploration 72

4.3.2 Extraction 73

4.3.3 Production 74

4.3.4 Transport 75

4.4 Environmental Impacts 76

4.4.1 Noise 77

4.4.2 Light 78

4.4.3 Oil Spills 78

4.4.4 Environmental Contamination by the Platform 79

4.4.5 Summary of Environmental Impacts 81

4.5 Mitigation Methods 81

4.5.1 Regulations 81

4.5.2 Protecting Birds From Platform Lights 82

4.5.3 Reducing Environmental Contamination 82

4.5.4 Oil Spill Responses 83

4.5.5 Platform Decommissioning 83

4.6 Conclusions 83

References 83

5 Coastal and Marine Pollution from Agricultural Activities: Fertilizers and Pesticides 89
Jithya Wijesinghe, Shermila M. Botheju, and Nalika R. Dayananda

5.1 Introduction 89

5.2 Current Status and Trends in Use of Fertilizer and Pesticides in Agriculture 90

5.3 Pesticide Distribution in Coastal and Marine Environment 90

5.4 Pesticide Entering Pathways to Coastal and Marine Environment 91

5.5 Fertilizer Use and Losses from Agricultural Land to Coastal and Marine Environment 92

5.6 Impact on the Coastal and Marine Environment of Agrochemicals 93

5.6.1 Current Status and Trends 93

5.7 Impacts of Agrarian-Based Synthetic Fertilizers and Pesticides on Marine and Coastal Life and Human Health 95

5.8 Impact on the Blue Economy 98

5.9 Innovative Solutions to Control and Prevent Coastal and Marine Pollution from Agricultural Activities 101

5.9.1 Regulatory Measures and Policies 101

5.10 Innovative Solutions and Future Challenges 104

References 105

6 Ocean Warming, Acidification, Plastic Pollution, and Water Quality Deterioration: A Multifaceted Crisis Unveiled 111
Nalika R. Dayananda, Jithya Wijesinghe, Shermila M. Botheju, W.P.R.T. Perera, and J.A. Liyanage

6.1 Ocean Warming: Impact on Global Ocean System and Cryosphere 111

6.1.1 The Oceans and Cryosphere: Intricately Linked Components of the Earth System 111

6.1.1.1 Global Oceans and Cryosphere 111

6.1.1.2 Ocean and Cryosphere, and Their Linkages in the Earth System Through the Movement of Heat, Water, and Carbon 111

6.1.2 Trends in Ocean Warming 113

6.1.3 Direct Impacts of Ocean Warming on the Ocean, Cryosphere, and Coastal Ecosystems 114

6.1.4 Anthropocentric Ocean Warming and its Direct and Indirect Impacts on Human 115

6.2 Water Quality Deterioration in Oceans 116

6.2.1 Brief Overview of Water Quality Issues in Oceans 116

6.2.2 Main Pollutants Affecting Water Quality in Oceans 117

6.2.3 Ecosystem Disruption 117

6.3 Ocean Acidification 120

6.3.1 The Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Eco-systems 122

6.3.2 Mitigation Strategies for Ocean Acidification 123

6.4 Plastic Pollution 125

6.4.1 Plastic Production, Usage, and Disposal in Oceans 125

6.4.2 Impacts of Plastic Debris on Marine Ecosystems 127

6.4.3 Socioeconomic Effects of Marine Plastic Pollution 128

6.4.4 Initiatives on Marine Plastic Pollution Control and Prevention 128

6.4.5 Innovative Solutions for Marine Plastic Pollution Control and Prevention 129

6.5 Cross-Disciplinary Solutions for Interconnected Nature of Ocean Warming Acidification, Plastic Pollution, and Water Quality Deterioration 131

6.6 Conclusion 132

References 132

7 Heavy Metal Pollution and Historical Legacies in Coastal–Marine Environment 139
Chamila Jinendra Nanayakkara, Nimila Dushyantha, Pubudi Dilshara, Nadeera Batapola, Nalin Ratnayake, Ranjith Premasiri, and Bandara Abeysinghe

7.1 Introduction 139

7.2 Evolution of Heavy Metal Pollution in Coastal and Marine Environments 140

7.3 Case Studies on Historical Legacies of Heavy Metal Contamination in Coastal and Marine Environments 142

7.3.1 Heavy Metal Contamination from Oil Spillages 142

7.3.2 Heavy Metal Contamination from Industrial Discharges 142

7.4 Heavy Metals and Their Essentiality in the Environment 146

7.4.1 Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals in Coastal Ecosystems 147

7.4.2 Heavy Metals Bioaccumulation in Plankton 147

7.4.3 Heavy Metal Uptake by Aquatic Plants and Algae 148

7.4.4 Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals in Shellfish and Fish 148

7.4.5 Human Consumption and Health Effects 149

7.5 Prevention and Management of Heavy Metal Pollution in Coastal and Marine Environments 151

7.5.1 Environmental Regulations and Legislations 151

7.5.2 Environmental Impact Assessment 152

7.5.3 Dredging 153

7.5.4 In Situ Capping 153

7.5.5 Phytoremediation 153

7.5.6 Bioremediation 154

7.6 Conclusion 154

7.7 Future Directives 155

Acknowledgment 155

References 155

8 Marine Pollution due to Mariculture and Fishing Operations in Sri Lanka: Impacts and Mitigation Strategies 163
Menuka Udugama, Lahiru Udayanga, Suchima Gonapinuwala, and Dileepa de Croos

8.1 Mariculture in Sri Lanka 163

8.2 Marine Pollution by Aquaculture and Fisheries Practices and Impacts 165

8.3 Nutrient Pollution and Impacts from Fisheries and Mariculture Practices 165

8.4 Oil Pollution and Impacts from Fisheries and Mariculture Practices 168

8.5 Chemical Pollution and Impacts from Fisheries and Mariculture Practices 169

8.6 Plastic Pollution and Impacts from Fisheries and Mariculture Practices 170

8.7 Policy Framework Governing the Mariculture Sector in Sri Lanka 173

8.8 Potential Mitigation Measures, Approaches and Way Forward 174

References 176

9 Marine Macro-litter: Sources, Abundance, Impacts, and Solutions 183
Minh-Ky Nguyen

9.1 Introduction 183

9.2 Sources, Fate, and Transport of Marine Macro-litter 184

9.3 Abundance and Distribution of Marine Macro-litter 185

9.4 Impacts of Marine Macro-litter 187

9.5 Solution Approaches Toward Sustainable Marine Ecosystem 190

9.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 191

References 191

10 Nuclear and Radioactive Marine Pollution and Monitoring of Radioactivity in Oceans 197
R.M.N. Priyanga Rathnayake and Dulanjalee Rajapaksha

10.1 Introduction 197

10.2 Sources of Radioactivity in Marine Ecosystems 197

10.2.1 Natural Radioactivity of Marine Ecosystems 198

10.2.2 Anthropogenic Radioactivity in Marine Ecosystems 199

10.2.3 Fallouts from Nuclear Weapon Tests 199

10.2.4 Dumping of Radioactive Waste into the Oceans 200

10.2.5 Discharges from Nuclear and Radiation Facilities and Accidents 201

10.2.6 Chernobyl Nuclear Powerplant Accident 201

10.2.7 Fukushima Power Plant Accident 202

10.2.7.1 Fukushima Water Release 203

10.2.7.2 Discharges from the Nuclear Reprocessing Plants 204

10.3 Important Radionuclides to the Marine Ecosystems, Their Chemistry, and Behaviors 205

10.4 Impact of Radioactive and Nuclear Pollution on Marine Ecosystem 206

10.4.1 Mutations and Genetic Damage 206

10.4.2 Bioaccumulation 207

10.4.3 Psychological Impact 208

10.5 Monitoring of Radioactivity in Oceans and Marine-Originated Products 209

10.5.1 Marine Radioactivity Information System (MARIS) 209

10.5.1.1 Data Centralization 210

10.5.1.2 Monitoring and Early Warning 210

10.5.2 Risk Assessment and Management 210

10.5.3 International Collaboration 210

10.5.4 Public Awareness and Education 210

10.5.5 Policy Support and Decision-Making 211

10.5.6 Asia and Pacific Marine Radioactivity Database (ASPAMARD) 211

10.6 Preventive Measures on Radioactive and Nuclear Marine Pollution 211

10.6.1 Stricter Regulations on the Disposal of Radioactive Waste 211

10.6.2 Improved Safety Standards for Nuclear Facilities 212

10.6.3 Monitoring and Research 212

10.6.4 Public Education and Awareness 212

References 213

11 GIS-Based Gray Water Footprint (GWF) Assessment of Coastal and Marine Pollution: A Minimization Approach 217
Pelin Soyertaş Yapıcıoğlu, Abdullah Iżzeddin Karabulut, and Mehmet Iṙfan Yeşilnacar

11.1 Introduction 217

11.2 Gray Water Footprint of Coastal and Marine Pollution 218

11.3 Integration of GIS and GWF Methods 218

11.4 GIS Solutions for Marine and Coastal Pollution Management 219

11.5 3D Analyst 220

11.5.1 Spatial Analyst 220

11.5.2 Tracking Analyst 220

11.5.3 Network Analyst 220

11.5.4 Geostatistical Analyst 220

11.6 Conclusions 222

References 222

12 Underestimated Threats: Personal Care Products (PCPs) in Marine and Coastal Environments 225
Madhuni Madhushika Wijesooriya, Meththika Vithanage, and Hasintha Wijesekara

12.1 Introduction 225

12.2 Sources and Environmental Fate of PCPs in Marine and Coastal Environments 227

12.3 Active Ingredients of Concern in PCPs 230

12.3.1 Disinfectants and Cleansing Agents 230

12.3.2 Preservatives 230

12.3.3 UV Filters 230

12.3.4 Fragrances 230

12.3.5 Micro(nano)plastics, Microbeads, and Nano-additives 231

12.4 Consequences to Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 231

12.4.1 Effects on Marine Species and Corals 231

12.4.2 PCP Accumulation in Marine Sediments and Seashore 235

12.4.3 Marine Eutrophication and Algal Blooms 236

12.4.4 Marine Microbiome and Ocean Biogeochemical Cycling 236

12.5 Risks to Humans via Seafood Consumption 237

12.6 Prevention and Mitigation Strategies 237

12.7 Conclusions and Future Remarks 239

References 239

13 Monitoring and Assessment of Coastal and Marine Pollution: Methods and Technologies 249
G.K.M.R. Peter, S.M. Dassanayake, C.L. Jayawardena, and I. Mahakalanda

13.1 Introduction 249

13.2 Bibliographic Review 251

13.3 Remote Sensing in Coastal and Marine Pollution Monitoring 254

13.3.1 Monitoring Plastic Pollution 258

13.3.2 Monitoring Oil Spills 259

13.3.3 Monitoring Heavy Metal Pollution 260

13.3.4 Monitoring Harmful Algal Blooms/Red Tides 260

13.4 Marine Pollution Assessment 261

13.5 Discussion 265

13.6 Concluding Remarks 266

References 266

14 Toxicological Techniques for Coastal and Marine Pollution Monitoring 269
Siddihalu Lakshitha Madunil and Jithya Wijesinghe

14.1 Introduction 269

14.2 Toxicity Testing 271

14.2.1 Acute Toxicity Tests 271

14.2.2 Chronic Toxicity Tests 271

14.2.3 Whole Effluent Toxicity (WET) Tests 271

14.3 Endpoints and Biomarkers 272

14.4 Sediment Toxicity Tests 273

14.5 Impacts of Pollution on Different Marine Species 274

14.6 Biomonitors and Bioindicators 274

14.6.1 Benthic Organisms 275

14.6.2 Aquatic Macroinvertebrates 275

14.6.3 Phytoplankton and Zooplankton 275

14.6.4 Macrophytes 275

14.6.5 Fish and Shellfish 276

14.6.6 Animal Toxins 276

14.7 Bioassays 277

14.7.1 Algal Bioassays 277

14.7.2 Invertebrate Bioassays 278

14.7.3 Fish Bioassays 279

14.7.4 Bacterial Luminescence Assay 279

14.8 Biomarker Analysis 280

14.8.1 Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Inhibition Biomarker 280

14.8.2 Aldehyde Dehydrogenase (ALDH) Inhibition Biomarker 281

14.8.3 Protein Biomarkers 281

14.8.4 Genotoxicity Biomarkers 281

14.8.5 Oxidative Stress Biomarkers 282

14.8.6 Cellular Biomarkers 284

14.9 Biosensors 284

14.9.1 Enzyme-Based Biosensors 285

14.9.2 Immunosensors 285

14.9.3 DNA-Based Biosensors 285

14.9.4 Whole-Cell Biosensors 286

14.9.5 Optical Biosensors 286

14.9.6 Electrochemical Biosensors 286

14.10 Chemical Analysis 286

14.10.1 Sample Collection Techniques 286

14.10.2 Analytical Techniques 287

14.10.3 Tissue Analysis 288

14.11 Histopathology 288

14.12 Ecotoxicological Surveys 289

14.13 Toxicogenomics 290

14.14 Integrated Monitoring Techniques 290

14.15 Conclusion 291

References 292

15 Marine Sediment Remediation Through Tiered Risk Assessment Approach 305
Divya Pal and Jonas Gunnarsson

15.1 Introduction 305

15.2 Sediment Remediation Techniques 307

15.2.1 Active or Thin-Layer Capping 307

15.2.1.1 Remediation with Alkali-Activated Materials (AAMs) 307

15.2.1.2 Carbonaceous Materials (CMs) for Capping 307

15.2.1.3 Organo-clay Materials (OCMs) for Capping 309

15.2.1.4 Other Materials 309

15.2.2 Passive Layer Capping 310

15.2.3 Dredging and Other Methods for Sediment Remediation 311

15.3 Risk Assessment-Based Strategy 311

15.3.1 Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) 312

15.3.2 Tier-Based/TRIADTriad Approach for Sediment Toxicity Assessment 313

15.3.2.1 Line of Evidence-1: Environmental Chemistry 313

15.3.2.2 Line of Evidence-2: Toxicity 314

15.3.2.3 Line of Evidence-3: Ecology 314

15.3.3 Scaling, Weighting, and Integration of Results 315

15.4 Conclusions 315

Acknowledgment 316

References 316

16 Biochar Application for Mitigation of Coastal and Marine Pollution: An Experimental Modeling 321
Pelin Soyertaş Yapıcıoğlu

16.1 Introduction 321

16.2 Materials and Methods 322

16.2.1 Biochar Application for Coastal and Marine Pollution 322

16.2.2 Experimental and Computational Modeling of Biochar Application 323

16.3 Results and Discussion 324

16.4 Conclusion 326

References 326

17 Coastal and Marine Plastic Pollution Monitoring and Control Using Remote Sensing (RS) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) Technologies 329
Iddamalgoda Jayawardenage Judi Udari Nisansala Perera, Ranepura Dewage Charuka Sandaruwan, and Bellanthudawage Kushan Aravinda Bellanthudawa

17.1 Introduction 329

17.2 Challenges of In Situ Visual Monitoring of Plastic Litter in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 330

17.3 Remote Sensing (RS) Approaches for Monitoring Marine and Coastal Environments 330

17.3.1 Sensor Types 331

17.3.2 RS Platforms 331

17.3.2.1 Airborne Platforms for Remote Detection of Plastic Debris in Marine and Coastal Environments 331

17.3.2.2 Spaceborne Platforms for Remote Detection of Marine Plastic Litter in Marine and Coastal Environments 332

17.3.2.3 Underwater Platforms for Monitoring Subsurface and Submerged Marine Plastic Debris 333

17.3.2.4 LiDAR, Radar, and Sonar RS for Marine Debris Monitoring 333

17.4 Methods for Mapping Marine Plastic Litter from Remote Sensing Data: Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA) Using Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL) 335

17.4.1 AI Workflow for Marine Litter Detection 336

17.4.1.1 Mapping Marine Litter with Unmanned Aerial Systems: Cabedelo Beach, Western Portuguese Coast 339

17.5 Challenges Using RS/AI Technologies to Detect Marine Plastics 340

17.6 Conclusion 341

References 342

18 Policy and Governance Approaches for Coastal and Marine Pollution Management 347
Chandrasekara SSK

18.1 Introduction 347

18.1.1 Coastal and Marine Resources of Sri Lanka At a Glance 347

18.1.2 Diversity Paves for Pollution 348

18.1.3 Pollution from Ignorant Natural Disaster – Tsunami 349

18.1.4 Marine Plastic Pollution – Concealed Catastrophic Disaster 349

18.2 Institutional Arrangement for the Coast and Marine Resources Management in Sri Lanka 349

18.2.1 Establishment of a Main Institution for Coastal Resources Development and Management 349

18.2.2 Integration of Multidisciplinary Institutions to Support the Mandated Responsibilities 350

18.2.3 Subsidiary/Secondary Institutions for Collaborative Coastal and Marine Environment Management 350

18.2.4 Enactment of Legislation for Provisioning of Responsibilities 352

18.3 The Necessity of Governance Approaches to Increase the Effectiveness of Coastal and Marine Pollution Control in Sri Lanka 353

18.4 Conclusion and the Way Forward 355

References 356

19 Impact of Climate Change on Marine Ecosystems 359
Leneka Terika Rhoden

19.1 Introduction 359

19.2 Implications of Anthropogenic Climate Change on Marine Ecosystems 359

19.3 Linear Graph Showing Annual Global Sea-Surface Temperature Anomalies from 1880 to 2015 360

19.4 Conceptual Framework 363

19.5 Marine Life and Physical Characteristics of Oceans 365

19.6 Spatial Variability in Temperature Change 366

19.7 Resulting Biological Disruptions in Marine Ecosystems 368

19.8 Pelagic Ecosystems and Climate Dynamics 369

19.9 Coral Reefs and Ocean Acidification 371

19.10 Climate Migration and Adaptation in Marine Organisms 374

19.11 Case Study: Influx of Sargassum across the Caribbean 375

19.12 Management and Government Policies for Marine Ecosystems: The Way Forward 377

19.13 Conclusions and Key Recommendations 378

References 379

20 X-Press Pearl Disaster 389
Uswatta Liyanage Harsha Prabath Perera, and Amila Sandaruwan Ratnayake

20.1 Introduction 389

20.2 The MV X-Press Pearl Cargo Vessel 392

20.2.1 Hazardous Chemicals and Goods Contained in the MV X-Press Pearl Vessel 392

20.3 The Environmental Impacts of the X-Press Pearl Maritime Debacle 392

20.3.1 Plastic and Microplastic Pollution 394

20.3.1.1 Microplastic Pollution 394

20.3.2 Chemical Pollution 394

20.3.3 Oil Pollution 395

20.3.4 Air Pollution 396

20.3.5 Impacts on Marine Life and Coastal Environments 396

20.3.6 Hazard Identification and Risk Analysis 397

20.4 The Socioeconomic Impacts After the X-Press Pearl Disaster 398

20.5 Conclusion 398

References 399

21 Container Overboard in the Port of New Orleans, LA, USA: The Response and Cleanup of the 2020 Bianca Pellet Spill 403
Bryan D. James and Christopher M. Reddy

21.1 Introduction 403

21.2 Materials and Methods 404

21.2.1 Sample Collection 404

21.2.2 Morphometric and Colorimetric Analyses 405

21.2.3 Densitometry 406

21.2.4 Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (atr-ftir) 406

21.2.5 Statistical Analysis 406

21.2.6 Details of the Spill 406

21.3 Results and Discussion 406

21.3.1 Timeline 406

21.3.1.1 The Accident 406

21.3.1.2 Notification 407

21.3.1.3 Pellets in the Mississippi River 407

21.3.1.4 Delayed Response 408

21.3.1.5 Cleanup 409

21.3.1.6 Aftermath 409

21.3.1.7 Summary of the Spill 410

21.4 Understanding the Fate of the Nurdles Following the Spill 410

21.4.1 Shape, Size, and Color of the Nurdles 411

21.4.2 Density of the Nurdles 412

21.4.3 IR Assignment of Polymer Type 412

21.4.4 IR Assessment of the Extent of Weathering 413

21.4.5 Lessons Learned from the Spill 415

References 419

22 Unleashing Potential: Transcending Marine Pollution Forecasts for a Better Future and Critical Thresholds 425
Sandun Dassanayake, Udari Perera, and Mahinsasa Rathnayake

22.1 Introduction 425

22.2 Critical Thresholds in Marine Life 2030 Program 426

22.3 Major Marine Pollution Sources 426

22.3.1 Oil Spills 428

22.3.2 Marine Plastics 429

22.4 Remote Sensing-Based Monitoring 431

22.5 Biomonitoring 432

22.6 Data-Driven Assessment Techniques 433

22.7 Critical Thresholds: Challenges, Opportunities, and Future Directions 436

References 443

23 Impacts of Coastal and Marine Pollution on the Blue Economy: Integrating Blue Finance Perspectives 447
Gayithri Niluka Kuruppu, Nimila Dushyantha, Panchala Weerakoon, Gayan Amarasooriya, Titus Cooray, and Harshi Jayasingha

23.1 Introduction 447

23.2 Impacts of the Coastal and Marine Pollution on Main Pillars of the Blue Economy 449

23.2.1 Impacts of the Coastal and Marine Pollution on Fisheries and Aquaculture 449

23.2.2 Impacts of the Coastal and Marine Pollution on Extraction and Generation of Energy and Nonliving Resources 450

23.2.3 Impacts of Coastal and Marine Pollution on Trade and Commerce Related to the Ocean 450

23.2.4 Impacts of Coastal and Marine Pollution on Tourism 453

23.3 The Economic Toll of Marine and Coastal Pollution on the Blue Economy 454

23.4 Blue Finance for Investing in a Sustainable Maritime Future 455

23.4.1 Foundations of Blue Finance 455

23.4.2 Addressing the Financing Gap in Blue Finance 456

23.4.3 Challenges to Implement Blue Finance Initiatives to Achieve Blue Economy 458

23.5 Conclusion 459

Acknowledgement 459

References 459

24 Macro Issues of Microplastics: Present Status and Future Challenges 465
Wijetunge, D.S., Perera, S.P.K.K.A., Karunathilake, N.M.O.A., and Ranatunga, R.R.M.K.P.

24.1 Microplastics (MPs): The Global Pollutant 465

24.1.1 Current Understanding of MPs 465

24.1.2 Eco-toxicological Effects of MPs and the Importance of Long-Term Monitoring 466

24.1.3 Plastic Biogeochemical Cycle 466

24.1.3.1 Plastic Cycle in the Terrestrial Environment 467

24.1.3.2 Plastic Cycle in the Freshwater Environment 468

24.1.3.3 Plastic Cycle in the Marine Environment 468

24.1.3.4 Plastic Cycle in the Atmosphere 469

24.1.4 MPs and Climate Change 469

24.2 Importance of Standardized MP Assessments and Accuracy in Data Acquisition 470

24.2.1 Consistent Framework of Studies 470

24.2.2 Quality Assurance 470

24.2.3 Interlaboratory Comparability 471

24.2.4 Facilitating Collaboration 471

24.2.5 Regulatory Efforts 471

24.2.6 Reproducibility 471

24.2.7 Transparency of Results 472

24.2.8 Evolution of MP Analysis Protocols 472

24.2.8.1 Sample Collection and Preservation 472

24.2.8.2 Sample Processing 472

24.2.8.3 Physical and Chemical Identification of MPs 474

24.2.9 Advanced Integrated Studies on Cryospheric, Aquatic, Terrestrial, Biospheric, and Atmospheric Settings 475

24.2.10 Empirical Data Versus Global Metadata 476

24.3 Economics of Waste Management 478

24.4 Mitigating MP Pollution: Sustainable Approaches, Circular Economy, and Policymaking 481

24.4.1 Sustainable Approaches and Circular Economy 481

24.4.2 Identification of Plastic-related Initiatives Towards a Circular Economy 482

24.4.3 Characterization of Initiatives and Their Potential Contribution to a Circular Economy 483

24.4.4 Developing an Evaluation Framework to Assess the Effectiveness of Selected Initiatives 483

24.4.5 Identification of Knowledge Gaps on Issues of Circularity 483

24.4.5.1 Source Segregation 483

24.4.5.2 Landfill or Dumpsite Mining 484

24.4.5.3 Public Participation in Microlevel Plastic Waste-Related Businesses 484

24.4.6 Policymaking 485

24.5 Conclusion 486

References 486

Index 495

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