Preface xiii          List of Contributors xvii 1 Global Wetlands: Categorization, Distribution and Global Scenario 1 1.1 Wetlands Definition, Categorization and Classification Criteria 1 1.1.1 Wetlands- Categorization and Classification 3 1.1.2 Human- Made Wetlands 5 1.2 Importance of Wetland Ecosystem 5 1.3 Spatial Distribution and Potential of Global Wetlands 7 1.4 Status and Impacts on the Wetlands Ecosystem 8 1.4.1 Conservation Measures and Future Strategies 10 1.4.2 Conclusion and Recommendation 11 Acknowledgements 13 References 13 2 Ramsar Convention: History, Structure, Operations, and Relevance 17 2.1 Background 17 2.2 The Ramsar Convention 18 2.3 The Convention Text 19 2.4 Wetland Definition and Classification 19 2.5 Mission of the Convention 22 2.6 Structural Framework of the Convention 22 2.7 Operational Framework of the Convention 25 2.7.1 Convention Membership 25 2.7.2 Ramsar Regions 26 2.7.3 National Ramsar Committees 30 2.7.4 The Montreux Record 31 2.7.5 Ramsar Strategic Plan 31 2.7.6 Three Pillars of Ramsar Convention 31 2.7.7 The Convention Budget 32 2.8 External Partnerships and Synergies 33 2.9 Education and Outreach 35 2.9.1 Communication, Education, Participation, and Awareness (CEPA) 35 2.9.2 World Wetlands Day 36 2.10 Legal Status 36 2.11 Effectiveness of the Convention 37 References 38 3 Ecological Importance of Wetland Systems 40 3.1 Introduction 40 3.2 Importance of Wetlands in Flood Control 40 3.3 Role of Wetlands in Groundwater Replenishment 41 3.4 Role of Wetlands in Stabilization and Storm Protection of Shorelines 42 3.5 Role of Wetlands in Sediment and Nutrient Retention 43 3.6 Role of Wetlands in Water Purification 44 3.7 Biodiversity of Wetlands 45 3.8 Wetland Products 46 3.9 Sociocultural Values of Wetlands 46 3.10 Wetlands in Relation to Recreation and Tourism 47 3.11 Wetland and Climate Change 48 3.12 Summary 49 Acknowledgments 50 References 50 4 Ecological and Societal Importance of Wetlands: A Case Study of North Bihar (India) 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 Geographical and District-Wise Distribution of Wetlands in North Bihar 58 4.2.1 Kabartal 60 4.2.2 Baraila Jheel 60 4.2.3 Kusheshwar Asthan 62 4.2.4 Jagatpur Wetland 62 4.2.5 Moti Jheel 63 4.2.6 Gogabeel Pakshi Vihar 64 4.3 Wetlands: Promoters of Sustainable Livelihood and Services 64 4.4 North Bihar Wetland Biodiversity: Status and Role 65 4.5 Urbanization, Pollution, and Climate Change Impacts 71 4.6 Legal Framework, Policies, and Challenges 77 4.7 Conclusion 79 Acknowledgments 80 References 80 5 Recognizing Economic Values of Wetland Ecosystem Services: A Study of Emerging Role of Monetary Evaluation of Chandubi Ecosystem and Biodiversity 87 5.1 Introduction 87 5.2 Methodology of Ecosystem Valuation 90 5.2.1 Market Prices – Revealed Willingness to Pay 90 5.2.1.1 Market Price Method 91 5.2.1.2 Productivity Method 91 5.2.1.3 Hedonic Pricing Method 92 5.2.1.4 Travel Cost Method 93 5.2.2 Circumstantial Evidence – Imputed Willingness to Pay 94 5.2.2.1 Damage Cost Avoided, Replacement Cost, and Substitute Cost Methods 94 5.2.3 Surveys – Expressed Willingness to Pay 95 5.2.3.1 Contingent Valuation Method 95 5.2.3.2 Contingent Choice Method 96 5.3 Ecosystem Services of Wetland 97 5.4 Chandubi Wetland: Introduction, Impact, and Introspection 97 5.5 Scaling up Wetland Conservation, Wise Use, and Restoration for Achieving Sustainable Development Goals 103 5.6 Wetlands’ Role in Achieving SDGs 104 5.7 Conclusion 108 Acknowledgments 109 References 109 6 Ecosystem Services of Lagoon Wetlands System in India 111 6.1 Introduction 111 6.2 Chilika Lagoon 112 6.3 Ecosystem Services Provided by Chilika Lagoon 112 6.3.1 Provisioning Services 114 6.3.1.1 Commercial Fisheries 114 6.3.1.2 Other Flora and Fauna of Chilika Lagoon 114 6.3.1.3 Navigation 115 6.3.2 Regulating Services 115 6.3.3 Cultural Services 116 6.3.4 Supporting Services 116 6.4 Threats and Management of Chilika Lagoon 117 6.5 Pulicat Lagoon 118 6.6 Ecosystem Services Provided by Pulicat Lagoon 119 6.6.1 Provisioning Services 119 6.6.1.1 Fisheries in Pulicat 119 6.6.2 Aquatic Flora and Fauna of Pulicat 120 6.6.3 Regulatory Services Provided by Pulicat Lagoon 120 6.6.4 Historical and Cultural Importance of Pulicat Lagoon 120 6.6.5 Supporting Services Provided by Pulicat Lagoon 121 6.6.6 Threats and Management of Pulicat Lagoon 121 6.7 Conclusion 123 Acknowledgments 124 References 124 7 Sustainable Practices for Conservation of Wetland Ecosystem 129 7.1 Introduction 129 7.2 Role of Wetlands in the Ecosystem 130 7.3 Challenges to Conserve Wetlands 133 7.4 Wetland Management and Sustainable Development 134 7.5 Future Strategies for Wetland Conservation 135 7.6 Development of the Legal Framework 135 7.7 Technology Intervention with Baseline Data for Wetland Conservation 136 7.8 Development of National Action Plans 136 7.9 Promotion of Research for Conservation Setup 136 7.10 Conclusion 136 References 137 8 Assessing the Benefits, Threats and Conservation of Reservoir-Based Wetlands in the Eastern Himalayan River Basin 140 8.1 Introduction 140 8.1.1 RBWs’ Significance and Ignorance 141 8.1.2 RBWs in India 142 8.1.3 The RBWs in the Eastern Himalayas 143 8.2 The RBWs in the Tista Basin 144 8.3 Benefits of Reservoirs as Wetland 145 8.3.1 Ecosystem Services Provided by the RBWs 145 8.4 Assessment of Ecosystem Services in the Tista Basin Provided by the RBWs 147 8.5 Adverse Impact of RBWs 149 8.5.1 Construction and Function of RBWs Across the World 149 8.5.2 Adverse Impact of RBWs in the Eastern Himalayas 149 8.6 Assessment of Impact on the Tista basin 150 8.7 Potential Challenges and Threats to RBW 152 8.7.1 Anthropogenic Activities 152 8.7.2 Variations in Water Level 153 8.8 Climate Change 153 8.9 Management and Conservation of RBWs 154 8.10 Conclusion 155 References 156 9 Spatiotemporal Evaluation of Causes and Consequences of Wetland Degradation 162 9.1 Introduction 162 9.2 Classification of Wetlands 162 9.3 Causes of and Consequence of Wetland Degradation 164 9.3.1 Natural Causes 164 9.3.1.1 Storms Surge 165 9.3.1.2 Disintegration of Barrier Islands 165 9.3.1.3 Flooding and Salinization 165 9.3.1.4 Herbivory 166 9.3.1.5 Climate Change 166 9.3.1.6 Major Shifts in a River’s Course 166 9.3.2 Anthropogenic Causes of Wetland Loss 166 9.3.2.1 Infrastructure Development 167 9.3.2.2 Land Conversion 167 9.3.2.3 Water Withdrawal 168 9.3.2.4 Eutrophication and Pollution 168 9.3.2.5 Overharvesting and Overexploitation 168 9.3.2.6 Introduction of Invasive Species 168 9.3.2.7 Others 169 9.4 Consequences of Wetland Loss 170 9.4.1 Loss of Biodiversity 170 9.4.2 Decrease in Water Level 171 9.4.3 Loss of Habitat 171 9.4.4 Climate Change 171 9.4.5 Emission of Greenhouse Gases 171 9.4.6 Erosion of River Delta 172 References 172 10 The Status of Current Knowledge, Distribution, and Conservation Challenges of Wetland Ecosystems in Kashmir Himalaya, India 175 10.1 Introduction 175 10.2 Wetlands Over North-Western Kashmir Himalaya 176 10.2.1 Current Status 176 10.2.2 Wetland Classification 178 10.2.2.1 High Altitude Wetlands (HAWs) 182 10.2.2.2 Mid-Altitude Wetlands (MAWs) 182 10.2.3 Wetland Distribution and Extent in Kashmir Himalaya 182 10.3 Wetland Functions and Values 184 10.3.1 Regulatory functions 184 10.3.1.1 Regulation of Global Climate 184 10.3.1.2 Groundwater Recharge and Discharge 184 10.3.1.3 Water Purification 185 10.3.1.4 Natural Hazard and Flood Control 185 10.3.1.5 Sediment Retention 185 10.3.2 Provisioning Functions 185 10.3.2.1 Food Resources 185 10.3.2.2 Raw Materials 186 10.3.2.3 Medicinal Resources 186 10.3.3 Cultural Functions 186 10.3.3.1 Tourism, Aesthetics, and Recreation 186 10.3.3.2 Scientific and Educational Information 186 10.3.4 Supporting Functions 187 10.3.4.1 Biodiversity Habitats 187 10.3.4.2 Nutrient Cycling 187 10.3.5 Economic Values 187 10.4 Drivers of Wetland Degradation 187 10.4.1 Land System Changes 188 10.4.2 Pollution 189 10.4.3 Floating Agriculture 190 10.4.4 Siltation 190 10.4.5 Roads and Railways 190 10.4.6 Plantations 190 10.4.7 Overexploitation 191 10.4.8 Weed Infestation 191 10.4.9 Hunting and Poaching 191 10.4.10 Land Reclamation 191 10.5 Wetland Conservation in Kashmir Himalaya 191 10.5.1 Legal Framework 192 10.5.2 Conservation Challenges 193 10.5.3 Conservation Strategies 193 10.5.4 Knowledge Gaps 193 10.6 Conclusion 195 Acknowledgments 195 References 195 11 Heavy Metal Pollution in Coastal Environment and Its Remediation Using Mangroves: An Eco-sustainable Approach 201 11.1 Introduction 201 11.2 Pollution in Mangrove Habitats: A Global Concern 202 11.3 Heavy Metal Cycling in the Mangrove Ecosystem 203 11.4 Heavy Metal Transport, Uptake, and Release 204 11.5 Bioavailability and Concentration of Heavy Metals in the Sediments 204 11.6 Factors Affecting Heavy Metals in the Sediment 205 11.7 Heavy Metal Accumulation in Mangrove Plants 210 11.8 Heavy Metal Remediation Potential of Mangroves 210 11.9 Distribution of Heavy Metals in Different Plant Tissues of Mangrove Species 214 11.10 Application of Phytoremediation to Coastal Pollution Remediation 214 11.10.1 Phytoremediation Using Constructed Wetlands (CWs) Technology 214 11.10.2 Phytoremediation Using Constructed Floating Bed 216 11.11 Eco-remediation Technologies as Sustainable Natural Treatment Systems for Waste Water Treatment 217 11.12 Conclusion and Future Prospects 217 References 218 12 Mangrove Forests: Distribution, Species Diversity, Roles, Threats and Conservation Strategies 229 12.1 Introduction 229 12.2 Mangrove Species Diversity 230 12.3 Geographical Distribution of Mangroves Across the Globe and India 237 12.4 Important Roles of Mangroves 237 12.4.1 Mangrove Forests are the Richest and Most Biodiverse Ecosystems on Earth 241 12.4.2 Aquaculture: Shrimp and Fish Cultivation 242 12.4.3 Protection from Natural Disasters: Mangroves Act as Natural Bioshields Against Natural Disasters 242 12.4.4 Medicinal Value of Mangroves 243 12.5 Threats to Mangroves 243 12.5.1 Human Settlements and Other Developmental Activities 244 12.5.2 Excessive Extraction of Wood 245 12.5.3 Conversion of Mangrove Forests for Farming and Related Activities 245 12.5.4 Conversion of Mangrove Forests for Aquaculture 245 12.5.5 Global Warming, Climate Change, and Sea Level Rise 246 12.5.6 Limits to Landward Movement 246 12.5.7 El Niño and La Niña Events 247 12.6 Strategies for the Conservation of Mangroves 247 12.6.1 Increased and Focused Research on Understanding Mangroves 247 12.6.2 Implementation of Mangrove Conservation‐Related Laws, Guidelines, and Other Initiatives 247 12.6.3 Strengthening Conservation Mechanisms 251 12.6.4 Targeting Land Ownership‐Related Issues 251 12.6.5 Involvement of Local Communities 251 12.7 Conclusion 252 Acknowledgments 253 References 253 13 Wetland Conservation and Restoration 272 13.1 Introduction 272 13.2 Wetlands: Role and Importance 274 13.3 Wetland Loss Leading to Ecological Imbalance 275 13.4 Wetland Management Strategies: Current Status 277 13.5 Wetland Restoration and Sustainability 280 13.5.1 4th Ramsar Strategic Plan 2016–2024 (Source: Ramsar Secretariat 2016) 280 13.6 Conclusion 281 Acknowledgments 281 References 281 Index 285

An up-to-date overview of approaches for addressing wetlands degradation and its effects on ecosystem services, human health, and other ecosystems Wetlands are essential sources of biodiversity, water purification, groundwater replenishment, flood control, storm protection, sediment retention, recreation and tourism, and more. Human exploitation of natural resources over the past 200 years has caused significant wetlands degradation and loss. Although the Ramsar Convention of 1971 drafted polices for wetland conservation and responsible use, many wetland sites remain inadequately conserved or managed. Maintaining the ecological balance and equilibrium of wetlands requires a clear understanding of the vital role of wetlands, the difficulties they face, and the policies enacted for their protection. Wetlands Conservation: Current Challenges and Future Strategies summarizes both current and emerging management strategies, trends, and policies regarding wetlands protection around the world. The authors provide accurate scientific information on wetlands while discussing the effects of climate change, global warming, modernization in agriculture, and other key topics. Designed to assist in the development of future solutions for wetlands conservation and management strategies, this important volume: Highlights the environmental, socioeconomic, and cultural importance of wetlandsIdentifies the factors responsible for the failure of many conservation initiativesDescribes the natural and anthropogenic factors of wetlands degradationDiscusses the role of community-based wetlands conservation and managementExplores Ramsar wetlands conservation and its impacts worldwide Wetlands Conservation: Current Challenges and Future Strategies is an invaluable resource for graduate and postgraduate students, researchers, ecologists, policymakers, conservation organizations, and others working in the field of natural resources management.